Minerals are typically formed when molten rock, or magma, cools, or by separating out of mineral-rich water, such as that in underground caverns. In general, mineral particles are small ...

Some minerals in rocks and organic matter (e.g., wood, bones, and shells) can contain radioactive isotopes. The abundances of parent and daughter isotopes in a sample can be measured and used to ...

Petrology is the study of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary - and the processes that form and transform them. Mineralogy is the study of the chemistry, crystal structure and physical ...